DFMs and DFMm) together as “lower aggression” syllables. The composite syllable DFMl-QCFl-UFM had an end frequency that was at least 500 Hz greater than the syllable’s minimum frequency; otherwise it was labeled as DFMl-QCFl. The remaining eight syllable types were composite syllables, named according to their distinct sound components. J Acoust Soc Am. Moreover, complex social vocalizations are learned in some species of bats [16], [17], [18], [19], including babbling behavior in bat juveniles [20]. The only limiting factor appears to be suitable roost features, but given that the species roosts in trees, man-made structures, and rock outcrops (Bachen et al. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN BIG BROWN BAT (EPTESICUS FUSCUS) ULTRASONIC VOCALIZATIONS IS CONTEXT DEPENDENT MATTHEW E. GRILLIOT,* STEPHEN C. BURNETT, AND MARY T. MENDONC¸A Sciences, Troy University–Montgomery, 126 Church Street, Montgomery, AL 36104, USA (MEG) Sexual variation in calls has been shown in other bat species (Neuweiler et al., 1987, Suga et al., 1987, Jones et al., 1992, Jones et al., 1993), although not as yet in big brown bats (Kazial et al. The big brown bat is similar in appearance to the evening bat, but is larger in size. For heart rate monitoring trials, tactile stimulation was delivered at a rate of ∼1/s for short (≤15 s) or long (60 s) durations. eCollection 2018. The ECG was recorded differentially with two silver wires, one pressed against each exposed dorsal flank. Similar alterations in social behavior under captive conditions have been reported in other species [50], [51]. Echolocation (biosonar) signals of E. fuscus are highly stereotyped and consist of short duration (2–5 ms) downward frequency modulated sweeps, with a fundamental acoustic element sweeping from 50 to 20 kHz and two to three harmonics [8], [32], [37], [38]. We also excluded bouts of vocalization containing >25% saturated or overlapped syllables. Playback is slowed to a sampling rate of 44.1 kHz. Moreover, emotion-related acoustic cues are evident within the call structure, both in terms of the syllable composition and temporal emission pattern. Vocalizations were recorded from 10 adult bats (6 females, 4 males) from the McMaster colony. We are grateful to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources and the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources for permission to collect bats. Monroy JA(1), Carter ME, Miller KE, Covey E. Author information: (1)Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA. A further limitation to the spectrogram cross-correlation is that templates of simple, single-feature syllables can be highly correlated with composite syllables that share acoustic features. Other syllables emitted in highly aggressive states (rBNBs, rBNBl and torQCF) are defined by the presence of nonlinearities. Further, the intensity level of an affective state may be effectively encoded by graded changes in acoustic features, such as the repetition rate [22]. Although such movements physically disturbed roosting bats, they did not evoke overt aggression. We randomly selected 15 exemplars as templates for each of the 19 experimenter-classified syllable types, except for three syllable types that had less than 15 observed examples–the DFM-UFM (n = 14), the wrinkled FM (WFM; n = 14), and the sinusoidal FM (sinFM; n = 13) syllables–in which case all observed examples were used as templates. A small amount of electroconductive gel (Parker Laboratories Inc., Fairfield, NJ) was applied to each flank, and the wires attached with a square adhesive bandage. Double asterisk, p<0.01. When syllables were qualitatively judged to contain nonlinearities, the type and relative position of the nonlinearity within the syllable was noted. Recent research has uncovered that paired big brown bats tend to cease vocalizing at short inter-bat distances (Chiu et al., 2008). The room was dimly lit to allow video recording of behavior with a digital camcorder (Panasonic PV-GS150) or webcam synchronized with the vocal recordings. The correlation coefficients for each comparison were used to calculate an average correlation for each syllable type. This study examines how vocalizing animals convey information about their affective or emotional state in social interactions. R01 DC000937/DC/NIDCD NIH HHS/United States, R01 DC00937-20/DC/NIDCD NIH HHS/United States. The probability of occurrence of these lower aggression syllables was compared to high aggression syllables (all other syllables, except appeasement). The majority of syllable types were relatively unique to a particular behavioral context, with the exception of the DFMs syllable: it was the most common antagonistic vocalization and was emitted during low, medium and high levels of aggression. Starting from the end of the tactile stimulation period, the period of elevated HR was calculated as the duration over which HR remained continuously >2 SDs above baseline. This site needs JavaScript to work properly. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044550.s008. The long, twirling tail ends of a luna moth’s wings create odd ultrasonic return signals, confusing their pursuers. Further, this method was used to classify a novel data set in our tactile irritation trials. Vocalizations were also recorded from 18 adult (14 females, 4 males) and three male juvenile bats from the NEOMED colony, some of which (n = 9) were recorded immediately after capture from the wild. Low aggression calls typically contained between 4 and 6 syllables (5.3±2.6 syllables/call). Figure 7. Maximum frequency deviations of 5 kHz were tolerated. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: PAF JJW. Thus, bats will adjust their position within the roost and their degree of physical contact according to ambient temperatures, roosting in a tight cluster when it is cold and spreading out when it is hot [52]. Because intruder bats typically did not vocalize as they approached a roosting cluster of home-cage bats, vocalizations recorded during aggressive contexts rarely contained overlapping signals from multiple animals. This information is particularly needed in light of recent work showing that neurons in the big brown bat amygdala, a center of emotional processing, discriminate well among syllables of social vocalizations [36]. Instantaneous HR was recorded over 15-min trials, concurrently with vocalization and video recordings. Vocalizations were recorded using 2–3 ultrasonic condenser microphones (CM16/CMPA, Avisoft Bioacoustics, Berlin, Germany) connected to amplifiers and A/D converters (UltraSoundGate 416H, Avisoft Bioacoustics). Two shallow DFM syllables, shalDFMs (Fig. Big brown bats emitted bouts of vocalization that could be assigned to a specific behavioral context: (1) low aggression, (2) medium aggression, (3) high aggression, or (4) appeasement. DFMs and DFMm). Bats adjust temporal parameters of echolocation pulses but not those of communication calls in response to traffic noise. All analyses reported in the “Results” are based on syllable classifications determined by the automated method. 3, pp. Medium aggression interaction. 7). Two distinct appeasement call structures. California Bat. See this image and copyright information in PMC. With automated analysis, any associated bias or error is at least constant and does not change over time [49]. -. The single-arched FM (sAFM) syllable typically had upsweep and downsweep components of similar duration, although these could vary along with the location of maximum frequency. Nonlinearities were typically absent in syllables emitted during low and medium aggression states (i.e. Sign In; Create an Account "Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Four bats used for ECG monitoring underwent surgery to attach a head pin that allowed an external heart rate (HR) monitor to connect with a wireless headstage (Triangle BioSystems Inc., TBSI, Durham, NC). Niemczura AC, Grimsley JM, Kim C, Alkhawaga A, Poth A, Carvalho A, Wenstrup JJ. Animals. Figure 4. Composite syllables consisted of two or more distinct sound elements. Great Himalayan Leaf-Nosed Bats Produce Different Territorial Calls to Respond to Sympatric Species and Non-Living Objects. (A) DFMs syllables do not show spectral differences between low aggression (grey) or medium aggression (red) contexts. Immediately following surgery, local anesthetic (Lidocaine) and antibiotic cream were applied to surgical areas. Their biosonar signals and associated processing by the auditory system have been studied extensively [31], [32], [33]. A syllable type was considered aggressive if at least 80% of the syllable examples were emitted in an aggressive context (Fig. 9A). High aggression calls could be monosyllabic (68%, 392 calls) or multisyllabic (32%, 184 calls). DEVELOPMENT OF FREQUENCY MODULATED VOCALIZATIONS IN BIG BROWN BAT PUPS By HEATHER W. MAYBERRY, B.A.Sc. Analysis of syllable sequencing revealed that multisyllabic calls were more likely to be complex (91%, 129 calls), beginning with the torQCF or rBNBs syllable. Tactile irritation also evoked a rapid increase in HR that slowly returned to the baseline rate (Fig. For clarity, some syllable names were modified from those previously presented [36]. For each behavioral context, we describe vocalizations in terms of syllable acoustics, temporal emission patterns, and typical syllable sequences. In a preliminary analysis, 7632 labeled syllables were classified by an experienced observer based on visual inspection of spectrograms, and 19 syllable types were identified as having unique spectral-temporal features. Little Brown Bat. Asterisk, p<0.05. 7C). Syllables contain varying degree and type of nonlinearities, such as deterministic chaos (black arrow), subharmonics (open arrow), and torus (gold arrow). The McMaster Bat Lab was supported by infrastructure grants from the Canada Foundation for Innovation and the Ontario Innovation Trust. Figure 7. Average call duration was 53.6±23.8 ms. Low aggression bouts showed an average ICS period of 110.8±159.4 ms (n = 27 bouts). Peak frequency was measured from the maximum amplitude of the waveform. DFMl-QCFl, downward frequency modulation long to quasi-constant frequency long; DFMl-QCFl-UFM, downward frequency modulation long to quasi-constant frequency long to upward frequency modulation. The lone roosting bat produces ultrasonic appeasement calls (see Video S8), and the unsettled bat returns to roost together. Medium aggression vocalization. Hechavarría JC, Jerome Beetz M, García-Rosales F, Kössl M. Sci Rep. 2020 Apr 30;10(1):7332. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-64323-7. 1A), medium (DFMm; Fig. A major finding is that vocal signals carry information about an animal’s internal emotional state, specifically signaling the behavioral context (aggression vs appeasement) and level of aggression. In cases where clear cycles of frequency modulation could be measured, syllable duration varied according to the number of FM cycles; on average, sinFM syllables had 1.8±1.2 FM cycles and lasted 22.4±20.7 ms in duration (range: 1–5 cycles, 9–73 ms duration; n = 13). By recording individual bat pups from the day of birth to twenty‐five days postnatal we observed behavioural and bioacoustic (temporal and spectral) changes in pup calls. Syllable types were categorized as aggressive or appeasing based on the behavioral context in which they were predominately observed. A bout is a group of calls relating to a specific behavior or interaction. Subharmonics introduced additional spectral components occurring at fractional integer values of the fundamental frequency. These bats were housed in a free-flight husbandry room (2.6×4.6×2.6 m), and were given ad libitum access to water and mealworms. The ultrasonic vocalizations of 36 individual adult male and 38 individual adult female big brown bats (i.e., the combined bats from the 2 situations, anechoic chamber and flying) were reduced to 2 principal components (PCs) that explained 77% of the variation (eigenvalues 0.46 and 0.31, respectively) among the 7 call variables . Interestingly, the appeasement syllables we observed are similar to several of the FM syllables produced by pups in the presence of mothers [35] to promote approach and retrieval behaviors [25], [55], [56]. DataWave software controlled physiological and video data acquisition. 1,3,4). Each trial was scored as evoking either a neutral, lower, or high aggression state. Bats are among the most gregarious and vocal mammals, with some species demonstrating a diverse repertoire of syllables under a variety of behavioral contexts. Almost all medium aggression calls (95%, 86 calls) were multisyllabic and the temporal emission pattern differed from low aggression calls (Figs. Video clip starts 114 s into the trial, in which one bat has been crawling (circling) around the cage producing biosonar calls. Recording sessions included several 10-min trials with different intruders. This text will be replaced by the flash music player. This study demonstrates that nonlinear phenomena are common in adult big brown bat social vocalizations and likely influence the behavioral state of listeners. Syllable types of big brown bat social vocalizations. Despite extensive characterization of big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) biosonar signals, there have been no detailed studies of adult social vocalizations. I used playback experiments to test the response of male and female big brown bats to variations in ultrasonic vocalizations of the opposite sex and to determine if ultrasonic vocalizations are used for mate selection. If acoustic features of vocalizations signal affective state of the caller and modify the behavior of the listener, then the amygdala may be particularly responsive to these acoustic features. Figure 3. Examining the probability of two-syllable pairings reveals distinct syllable ordering rules for appeasement calls that contain only two syllables (C) or those with at least three syllables (D). Future studies should examine the variety of contexts in which pups call to better understand the ontogeny and function(s) of these social vocalizations. A short duration irritating stimulus (15 s) resulted in a lower aggression state (grey) and a smaller and shorter increase in heart rate. We tested whether ultrasonic vocalizations in bats were contextually (roosting or flying) sexually dimorphic. The bat was returned to its holding cage for a two-day recovery period before physiological recording. Make sure your audio system is turned up so you can hear the sound. Although we did not measure sound pressure level of any syllables, appeasement vocalizations were dramatically lower in amplitude than aggressive vocalizations or biosonar pulses. Figure 6. These are challenging for manual classification as well. Yes Inter-call silence (ICS) periods were calculated as the time between the end of one call and the start of the next. Emotion-related acoustic cues are evident within the call structure by context-specific syllable types or variations in the temporal emission pattern. Commun Biol. Bat Sounds . Each bat was banded for individual recognition. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare descriptive statistics of low and medium aggression vocalizations. 2019 Sep;14(5):446-459. doi: 10.1111/1749-4877.12367. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, | Both the intruder and another bat (red band on both forearms) emit ultrasonic biosonar pulses towards the end of the clip. Matthew E. Grilliot, Stephen C. Burnett, and Mary T. Mendonça "Sexual Dimorphism in Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) Ultrasonic Vocalizations is Context Dependent," Journal of Mammalogy 90(1), 203-209, (1 February 2009). To ensure syllables shared acoustic features with an entire syllable category rather than a single exemplar, syllables were classified to the category with the highest average correlation across all templates. To optimize recording quality, 2–5 animals were housed in a small cage (35×33×28 cm) in a room lined with anechoic foam. 1) and descriptive statistics (Table S1). The caller directs its head towards the intruder bat while vocalizing. A call is the simplest emission pattern of a vocalization. The 7 components of the ultrasonic vocalizations of big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) used to characterize each ultrasonic signal, and included in the principal component analyses (taken directly from Burnett et al. Representation of perceptual dimensions of insect prey during terminal pursuit by echolocating bats. The lone roosting bat emits low-intensity appeasement vocalizations, whereas the unsettled bat produces overlapping high-intensity biosonar pulses. Saturated syllables were excluded from the analyses of nonlinear phenomena. The present study provides a more detailed understanding of how call structure expresses the emotional state of a caller, and provides the necessary tools for understanding how acoustic context modulates neural responses to social vocalizations in the amygdala and other brain regions. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044550.g005. Signals were high-pass filtered at 1 kHz and the amplitude of each syllable was normalized to 0.75 V. Temporal analyses were obtained from the sound spectrogram with an FFT length of 256 points (98.43% overlap) that allowed for a temporal resolution of 0.016 ms. Ten of the 18 syllable types were considered simple syllables. The present study on the same species with an identical experimental setup reveals that big brown bats also tend to adjust their vocalizations in order to … In some cases, HR would return to baseline and then show later elevated peaks. Development of echolocation and communication vocalizations in the big brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus. The DFMl-QCFl syllable contained a steep initial DFMl component that smoothly transitioned to a QCFl component (Fig. At 21 s into the video clip, an additional 97 s of the trial are cut, in which the intruder is roosting alone on the opposite side of the cage. Roosting bats displayed limited movement and vocalizations. There is no audio associated with this video. Note the broken horizontal axis for low and medium aggression. The unbanded bat shows signs of higher arousal and agitation by tracking the movement of the intruder, taking defensive postures, and vocalizing before the intruder makes physical contact. Development of echolocation and communication vocalizations in the big brown bat, Eptesicus fuscus A Neuroethology, sensory, neural, and behavioral physiology ... Big brown bats form large maternity colonies of up to 200 mothers and their pups. broad scope, and wide readership – a perfect fit for your research every time. Blue bars represent syllable transitions and grey bars represent repeated syllable pairings. To examine the syllable sequencing within multisyllabic calls, we tracked several features of call structure including: call composition (simple or complex), number of syllables per call, two-syllable pairings, first syllable, last syllable, and location of syllable transitions. 3). Yes Subharmonics were observed in the F0/2, F0/3 and F0/4 form, with period-doubling being the most common. Nonlinear acoustic phenomena were common in big brown bat social vocalizations, but were differentially observed across syllable types and behavioral contexts. | Evidence of graded acoustic parameter changes are widespread across mammals, suggesting a common coding rule in mammalian communication sounds [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28]. Journal of Mammology 56: 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044550.g008. These calls appear to promote social contact between conspecifics, as they were emitted by: (1) Lone roosting bats when unsettled cage-mates circled around the cage. This study characterized adult social vocalizations of big brown bats emitted under four behavioral contexts: low aggression, medium aggression, high aggression, and appeasement. Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, Ohio, United States of America, Thus, appeasement syllables were re-classified as DFMl-QCFl-UFM if the end frequency was at least 500 Hz greater than the minimum frequency. This lower threshold for response tended to prevent physical encounters (e.g. The most probable syllable type for a monosyllabic call was DFMl (49%). No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044550. 2020 Nov 4;10(11):2040. doi: 10.3390/ani10112040. ... vocalizations emitted when pups were alone were identical to adult echolocation signals. Guo D, Luo B, Zhang K, Liu M, Metzner W, Liu Y, Feng J. Integr Zool. Hoary Bat. A threshold was used to detect the positive deflection of each R-wave within the QRS complex, and timestamps saved. This was true even when the three syllable types defined by nonlinearities were excluded from the analysis (data not shown). During high aggression states, bats emitted fewer DFMs syllables (10%, 77 syllables) and increased their syllable diversity (Fig. 6A,C), with an ISS of 29.8±5.4 ms. Silver-Haired Bat. The following rules were adopted to aid classification of syllable types sharing similar features: This preliminary analysis enabled us to create appropriate templates for a spectrogram cross-correlation procedure that automated syllable classification and minimized experimenter bias. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044550.g009. The time interval between syllables is for illustrative purposes and does not correspond to natural syllable emission rates. García-Rosales F, Beetz MJ, Cabral-Calderin Y, Kössl M, Hechavarria JC. The torus QCF (torQCF) syllable was qualitatively distinct due to its dense harmonic stack. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044550.g001. A midline incision was made and the underlying muscle reflected laterally to expose the dorsal surface of the skull. When discrepancies occurred, they were often between syllable types that shared similar acoustic features, posing similar challenges for the automated and experimenter classifications. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. The inter-syllable silence (ISS) period was defined as the time between the end of one syllable and the start of the next. Three intensity levels of aggression were observed and vocalizations revealed unique features in terms of syllable composition and temporal emission pattern. Despite extensive characterization of big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) biosonar signals, there have been no detailed studies of adult social vocalizations. Torus (biphonation) appeared as multiple harmonic stacks of two similar but unrelated fundamental frequencies that followed a QCF frequency contour. Labeled sections were also compared to templates of background noise, and the average correlation across all syllable types was 0.3. On average, heart rate remained elevated for a longer duration (B) and showed a greater magnitude of change (C) during high aggression states (red) than lower aggression (grey) or neutral states (black). (A) Example data from a single bat during a 5-min trial of tactile irritation. Vocalizations were analyzed using SASLab Pro (v5.1, Avisoft Bioacoustics). Duration differences up to 15 ms were tolerated, limiting comparison of labeled syllables to templates that were similar in duration. Most vocalizations are pitched well above the range of human hearing and are referred to as ultrasonic. To further investigate how bats transition social vocalizations across different levels of aggression, we lightly jostled bats with a cotton swab to prolong the duration of disturbance and elicit aggressive behavior. Another trial in which the same intruder bat as in Video S1 attempts to roost with the cluster. 4, 5). Fifty frequency measurements regularly spaced along the fundamental frequency were obtained. Epub 2019 Aug 20. 2013 Aug 16;4:214. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2013.00214. Figure 8. A scrolling spectrogram and waveform (Avisoft Bioacoustics) displays a 5-s segment of vocalizations produced 40 s into Video S5. The WFM syllable was defined by having irregular FM and was heterogeneous in bandwidth and duration. The unbanded bat shows signs of higher arousal and agitation by tracking the movement of the intruder, taking defensive postures, and vocalizing before the intruder makes physical contact. Double asterisk, p<0.001. The probabilities of all possible two-syllable pairings were then computed across different types of call structures. Syllable types of big brown bat social vocalizations. No, Is the Subject Area "Acoustics" applicable to this article? Two bats were placed in the cage for undisturbed recording. An improved description of the vocal repertoire, associated behavioral contexts, and emotional states will facilitate a better understanding of the roles of brain regions involved in acoustic communication. 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